Leader versus manager: Lessons from top business executives

https://doi.org/10.35912/amor.v2i1.630
Published: Aug 25, 2020

Abstract:

Purpose: This article discusses the key differences between leadership and management. It also examines the business organizational executive’s leadership styles of seven selected top executives: Donald Trump, Steve Jobs, Bill Gates, Mark Zuckerberg, Jeff Bezos, Jack Ma, and Tony Fernandez.

Research methodology: The methodological approach of the study focuses on the review of published literature postulating on the differences in the characteristics and functions of leadership and management.

Results: Findings from the literature review indicate evidence that shows the differences and similarities between these two concepts of leaders and managers or leadership and management. The study also reveals that these top business executives demonstrated the contemporary leadership paradigms of transformational, charismatic, and servant leadership.

Limitations: One limitation is the review approach of the paper. The other is the analysis of leadership styles based on those top executives from the business sector.

Contributions: The article provides insights into the understanding of the evolvement of organizational management and the preferred leadership styles of top business executives. The findings on the leadership styles of the top business leaders add to the significance of the study.

Keywords:
1. Leaders
2. Managers
3. Organizational management
4. Top business executives
5. Leadership styles
Authors:
Chow Tong Wooi
Business School, Malaysia University of Science and Technology, Selangor, Malaysia
View PDF
How to Cite
Chow, . T. W. (2020). Leader versus manager: Lessons from top business executives . Annals of Management and Organization Research, 2(1), 53–65. https://doi.org/10.35912/amor.v2i1.630
Download Citation
  1. Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)
  2. BibTeX

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.
Issue & Section
Vol. 2 No. 1 (2020): August
Articles
References

    Arham, A. (2014). The relationship between leadership behavior, entrepreneurial orientation and organizational performance in Malaysian small and medium enterprises. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/view/rmit: 160765

    Armandi, B., Oppedisano, J., & Sherman, H. (2003). Leadership theory and practice: a “case” in point. Management Decision, 41 (10), 1076-1088.

    Ashkenas, R., Siegal, W., & Spiegel, M. (2013). Mastering organizational complexity: A core competence for 21st-century leaders. Research in Organizational Change and Development, 21, 29-58.

    Avery, G. C. (2004). Understanding leadership: Paradigms and cases. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Azad, Anderson Jr, Brooks, Garza, O’Neil, Stutz, & Sobotka. (2017). Leadership and management are one and the Ssme. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 2017; 81 (6) Article 102.

    Baldonado, A. M. (2015). What can we learn from young business leaders today? International Journal of Managerial Studies and Research. Vol, 3, Issue 6, pp. 40-43. ISSN 2349-0349. pp. 40-43.

    Bennett, N., & Lemoine, G. J. (2014). What a difference a word makes: Understanding threats to performance in a VUCA world. Business Horizons, 57 (3), 311-317.

    Bennis, W. G. (1989). Managing the dream: Leadership in the 21 st-century. Journal of Organizational Change, 2, 7.

    Bertocci, D. I. (2009). Leadership in Organizations. University Press of America, Maryland, U.S.

    Black, S. A. (2015). Qualities of effective leadership in higher education. Open Journal of Leadership, 4 (02), 54.

    Bolden, R. (2004). What is Leadership? Centre for Leadership Studies, University of Exeter. Retrieved May 20th, 2020, from business school.exeter.ac.uk/documents/.../what_is_leadership.pdf.

    Boyett, J. H., & Boyett, J. T. (1998). The guru guide: The best ideas of the top management thinkers. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

    Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York. NY: Harper and Row Publishers.

    Chow, T. W., & Adedeji, B. S. (2020). Multi-facet leadership approach for organizational performance in the evolving globalized landscape of the new millennium era. International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation, Vol. 24, Issue 02, 2020 ISSN: 1475-7192

    Cole, G. A., & Kelly, P. (2011). Management theory and practice (7thEd). Hamshire, U.K.: South-Western Cengage Learning.

    Day, D. V. (2001). “Leadership development: A review in context.” The Leadership Quarterly, 11 (4), 581-613.

    De Andrés, F., 2017. Jeff Bezos: The Best Living Transformational Leader as Example. Online. Retrieved May 11th, 2020 from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/jeff-bezos

    -best-living-transformational-leader-f%C3%A9lix-deandr%C3% A9s

    Denning, S. (2011). The reinvention of management. Strategy & Leadership, Vol. 39, No. 2: pp. 9-17.

    DePree, M. (1989). Leadership is an art. New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group.

    Drucker, P. F. (2007). Management challenges for the 21st-century. New York, NY: Harper Collins Publishers.

    Edersheim, E.H. & Drucker, P.F. (2007). The definitive Drucker: Challenges for tomorrow’s executives, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Professional.

    Edwards, G., Schedlitzki, D., Turnbull, S., & Gill, R. (2015). Exploring power assumptions in the leadership and management debate. Leadership & Organization Development Journal. Vol. 36 No. 3, 2015. pp. 328-343.

    Ellis, P., & Abbot, J. (2015). Exploring the differences between leaders and managers. Journal of Renal Nursing. Vol. 7. No. 2. 2015.

    Georgiades, N., & Macdonell, R. (1998). Leadership for competitive advantage. West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

    Gerard, L., Mcmillan, J., & D’Annunzio-Green, N. (2017). Conceptualizing sustainable leadership. Industrial and Commercial Training. Vol. 49, Issue 3. pp. 116-126, https://doi.org/10.1108/ICT-12-2016-0079

    Giddens, J. (2017). Transformational leadership: What every nursing dean should know. Journal of Professional Nursing. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profnurs.2017.10.004

    Goldman, E. F., Schlumpf, K. S., & Scott, A. R. (2017). Combining practice and theory to access strategic thinking. Journal of Strategy and Management. Vol. 10. Issue 4. Pp. 488-504. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSMA-02-2017-0012

    Goold, M., & Campbell, A. (1987). Many best ways to make strategy. Harvard Business Review, 65 (6), 70-76.

    Hall, R. D., & Rowland, C. A. (2016). Leadership development for managers in turbulent times. Journal of Management Development. Vol. 35. Issue 8. pp. 942-955. https://doi.org./101108/JMD-09-2015-0121

    House, J. (1995), leadership in the twenty-first century: a speculative inquiry, in Howard, A. (Ed.), The Changing Nature of work, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

    Immelman, A. (2017). The leadership style of U.S. president Donald Trump. (Working Paper No. 1.2). Collegeville and St. Joseph, MN: St. John’s University and the College of St. Benedict, Unit for the Study of Personality in Politics. Retrieved May 11th, 2020 from Digital Commons website: http://digitalcommons.csbsju.edu/psychology_pubs/107/

    Iordanoglou, D. (2018). Future trends in leadership development development practices and the crucial leadership skills. Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics. Vol. 15 (2).

    Kanongo, R. N. (1998). Leadership in organizations: Looking ahead to the 21 st-century. Canadian Pschology/Psychologie Canadienne, 39 (1-2), 71.

    Kamisan, A., King, E. M. Transactional and transformational Leadership: A comparative study of the difference between Tony Fernandez (Airasia) and Idris Jala (Malaysia Airlines) leadership styles from 2005-2009. International Journal of Business and Management, Vol. 8, No. 24. ISSN 1833-3850. pp. 107-116.

    Khzam, M. A. (2015). Leadership and change management. Retrieved March, 3rd 2020 from www.academia.edu › Leadership_And_Change_Manage.

    Kotter, J. P. (1990). A Force for change: How leadership differs from management. New York, NY: Free Press.

    Kotter, J. P. (2001). What leaders really do? Boston, MA: Harvard Business Review.

    Kuppusamy, S. K. (n. d). Leadership and the management of change: Air Asia Berhad. Online. Retrieved June 1st, 2020 from www.academis.edu.

    Liphadzi, M., Aigbavboa, C. O., & Thwala, W. D. (2017). A theoretical perspective on the

    difference between leadership and management. Procedia Engineering. 196. pp 478-

    Doi: 10.1016/j.proeng.2017.07.227

    Manning, G, & Curtis, K. (2019). The Art of Leadership. 6th edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

    Marques, J. (2015). The changed leadership landscape: what matters today? Journal of Management Development, 34 (10), 1310-1322.

    Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research (4th Ed). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

    Mullins, I. J. (2010). Management and organizational behaviour, 9th edition, Edinburg: Pearson Education Limited.

    Mursal, H. M. A., Idaja, M. M. O., & Dahie, A. M. (2016). The Impact of globalization on higher education: Empirical survey from universities in Mogadishu-Somalia. International Journal, 4(9).

    Nguyen, N. and Hansen, J.Ø. (2016), “Becoming a leader-manager: a matter of training and education”, Development and Learning in Organizations, Vol. 30 No. 6, pp. 10-12. https://doi.org/10.1108/DLO-07-2016-0056

    Northouse, P. G., (Ed.). (2015). Leadership: Theory and practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications.

    O’Connell, P. K. (2014). A simplified framework for 21 st-century leader development. The Leadership Quarterly. 25(2), 183-203, doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.06.001

    Parris, D. L., & Peachey, J. W. (2013). A systematic literature review of servant leadership theory in organizational contexts. Journal of business ethics, 113 (3), 377-393.

    Pawar, A., (2016). Transformational leadership: inspirational, intellectual and motivational stimulation in business. International Journal of Enhanced Research in Management & Computer Applications. ISSN: 2319-7471, Vol. 5, 2016.

    Petrie, N. (2014). Future trends in leadership development. Retrieved November18th, 2015 from www.ccl.org/leadership/pdf/research/futuretrends.pdf

    Pisapia, J. (2009). The strategic leader: New tactics for a globalizing world. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

    Pretorius, S., Steyn, H., & Bond-Barnard, T. J., (2018). Leadership Styles in Projects: Current Trends And Future Opportunities. South African Journal of Industrial Engineering November 2018 Vol 29(3) Special Edition, pp 161-172.

    Ramsay, J. R., Rutti, R. M., Lorentz, M. P., Barakat, L. L., & Sant’anna, A.S. (2017). Developing global transformational leaders. Journal of World Business. 52, pp. 461-473. http://dx.doi.org./10.1016/j.jwb.2016.06.002

    Rana, F. (2014, December). Jack Ma, The Capitalist. TIME, Retrieved June 1st, 2020 from time.com › time-person-of-the-year-runner-up-jack-ma

    Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. (2012). Essentials of organizational behaviour. Saddle Rivers: N.J. Pearson Higher Ed.

    Robbins, S.P., Coulter, M., & De Cenzo (2017) Management. 9th Edition, Prentice-Hall, London, UK.

    Sen, A. & Eren, E. (2012). Innovative leadership for the twenty-first century. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences. 41. pp. 1-14.

    Silva, A. (2014). What can we learn from great business leaders? Journal of Leadership Studies, Vol. 8. No, 3, pp. 52-57.

    Sirisetti, S. (2011). Quality leadership in the public sector: Strategies and challenges. The Journal of Commerce, 3(4), 45.

    Smet, A.D., Lurie, M., St George, A.m, (2018). Leading agile transformation: The new capabilities leaders need to build 21st-century organizations. McKinsey & Company.

    Sobocka-Szczapa, H. (2019). Competence of a leader - a manager in an organization. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, Vol. 318. 3rd International Conference on Social, Economic, and Academic Leadership (ICSEAL 2019), Atlantic Press.

    Sosik, J. J., Jung, D.I, Berson, Y, Dionne, S, & Jaussi, K. S. (2005). The strategic leadership of top executives in high-tech organizations. Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 47-61.

    Spears, L. C., & Lawrence, M. (Eds.). (2002). Focus on Leadership: Servant Leadership for the twenty-first century. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

    Spicker, P. (2012). Leadership: a perniciously vague concept. International Journal of Public Sector Management, Vol. 25, No.1: pp. 34-47.

    Tham, J. E., & Yazdanifard, R. (2015. The review of Alibaba’s operation management details that have navigated them to success. Global Journals of Management and Business Research (A) Vol, XV, Issue IV Version 1.

    Toma, S. G. (2013. Steve Jobs and modern leadership. Change and Leadership. No, 17. pp. 260-269.

    Toor, S-Ur-R., & Ofori, G. (2008). Leadership versus management: How they are different, and why. Leadership and Management in Engineering, April, 28, https://www.ResearchGate. net/publication/ 245492919.

    Toor, S-Ur-R. (2011). Differentiating leadership from management: An empirical investigation of leaders and managers. Leadership and Management in Engineering, 11(4): 330-320.

    Tran, K.S. (2021). Leadership Capability: “What We Do as a Leader” International Journal of Innovation, Management and Technology, Vol. 12, No. 1, February 2021. doi:10.18178/ijimt.2021.12.1.900

    Van Wart, M. (2013). Lessons from leadership theory and the contemporary challenges of leaders. Public Administration Review, 73 (4), 553-565.

    Zaleznik, A. (1977). Managers and leaders. Harvard Business Review, 55, 67-78.

    Zentner, A. (2016). Bill Gates: A Servant Leader. Retrieved May 11th, 2020 from SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2761090

    Zeti: New generation of leadership needed. (2014, October 2nd). The Star, Starbiz pp. 4.

  1. Arham, A. (2014). The relationship between leadership behavior, entrepreneurial orientation and organizational performance in Malaysian small and medium enterprises. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/view/rmit: 160765
  2. Armandi, B., Oppedisano, J., & Sherman, H. (2003). Leadership theory and practice: a “case” in point. Management Decision, 41 (10), 1076-1088.
  3. Ashkenas, R., Siegal, W., & Spiegel, M. (2013). Mastering organizational complexity: A core competence for 21st-century leaders. Research in Organizational Change and Development, 21, 29-58.
  4. Avery, G. C. (2004). Understanding leadership: Paradigms and cases. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
  5. Azad, Anderson Jr, Brooks, Garza, O’Neil, Stutz, & Sobotka. (2017). Leadership and management are one and the Ssme. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 2017; 81 (6) Article 102.
  6. Baldonado, A. M. (2015). What can we learn from young business leaders today? International Journal of Managerial Studies and Research. Vol, 3, Issue 6, pp. 40-43. ISSN 2349-0349. pp. 40-43.
  7. Bennett, N., & Lemoine, G. J. (2014). What a difference a word makes: Understanding threats to performance in a VUCA world. Business Horizons, 57 (3), 311-317.
  8. Bennis, W. G. (1989). Managing the dream: Leadership in the 21 st-century. Journal of Organizational Change, 2, 7.
  9. Bertocci, D. I. (2009). Leadership in Organizations. University Press of America, Maryland, U.S.
  10. Black, S. A. (2015). Qualities of effective leadership in higher education. Open Journal of Leadership, 4 (02), 54.
  11. Bolden, R. (2004). What is Leadership? Centre for Leadership Studies, University of Exeter. Retrieved May 20th, 2020, from business school.exeter.ac.uk/documents/.../what_is_leadership.pdf.
  12. Boyett, J. H., & Boyett, J. T. (1998). The guru guide: The best ideas of the top management thinkers. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
  13. Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York. NY: Harper and Row Publishers.
  14. Chow, T. W., & Adedeji, B. S. (2020). Multi-facet leadership approach for organizational performance in the evolving globalized landscape of the new millennium era. International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation, Vol. 24, Issue 02, 2020 ISSN: 1475-7192
  15. Cole, G. A., & Kelly, P. (2011). Management theory and practice (7thEd). Hamshire, U.K.: South-Western Cengage Learning.
  16. Day, D. V. (2001). “Leadership development: A review in context.” The Leadership Quarterly, 11 (4), 581-613.
  17. De Andrés, F., 2017. Jeff Bezos: The Best Living Transformational Leader as Example. Online. Retrieved May 11th, 2020 from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/jeff-bezos
  18. -best-living-transformational-leader-f%C3%A9lix-deandr%C3% A9s
  19. Denning, S. (2011). The reinvention of management. Strategy & Leadership, Vol. 39, No. 2: pp. 9-17.
  20. DePree, M. (1989). Leadership is an art. New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group.
  21. Drucker, P. F. (2007). Management challenges for the 21st-century. New York, NY: Harper Collins Publishers.
  22. Edersheim, E.H. & Drucker, P.F. (2007). The definitive Drucker: Challenges for tomorrow’s executives, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Professional.
  23. Edwards, G., Schedlitzki, D., Turnbull, S., & Gill, R. (2015). Exploring power assumptions in the leadership and management debate. Leadership & Organization Development Journal. Vol. 36 No. 3, 2015. pp. 328-343.
  24. Ellis, P., & Abbot, J. (2015). Exploring the differences between leaders and managers. Journal of Renal Nursing. Vol. 7. No. 2. 2015.
  25. Georgiades, N., & Macdonell, R. (1998). Leadership for competitive advantage. West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
  26. Gerard, L., Mcmillan, J., & D’Annunzio-Green, N. (2017). Conceptualizing sustainable leadership. Industrial and Commercial Training. Vol. 49, Issue 3. pp. 116-126, https://doi.org/10.1108/ICT-12-2016-0079
  27. Giddens, J. (2017). Transformational leadership: What every nursing dean should know. Journal of Professional Nursing. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profnurs.2017.10.004
  28. Goldman, E. F., Schlumpf, K. S., & Scott, A. R. (2017). Combining practice and theory to access strategic thinking. Journal of Strategy and Management. Vol. 10. Issue 4. Pp. 488-504. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSMA-02-2017-0012
  29. Goold, M., & Campbell, A. (1987). Many best ways to make strategy. Harvard Business Review, 65 (6), 70-76.
  30. Hall, R. D., & Rowland, C. A. (2016). Leadership development for managers in turbulent times. Journal of Management Development. Vol. 35. Issue 8. pp. 942-955. https://doi.org./101108/JMD-09-2015-0121
  31. House, J. (1995), leadership in the twenty-first century: a speculative inquiry, in Howard, A. (Ed.), The Changing Nature of work, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
  32. Immelman, A. (2017). The leadership style of U.S. president Donald Trump. (Working Paper No. 1.2). Collegeville and St. Joseph, MN: St. John’s University and the College of St. Benedict, Unit for the Study of Personality in Politics. Retrieved May 11th, 2020 from Digital Commons website: http://digitalcommons.csbsju.edu/psychology_pubs/107/
  33. Iordanoglou, D. (2018). Future trends in leadership development development practices and the crucial leadership skills. Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics. Vol. 15 (2).
  34. Kanongo, R. N. (1998). Leadership in organizations: Looking ahead to the 21 st-century. Canadian Pschology/Psychologie Canadienne, 39 (1-2), 71.
  35. Kamisan, A., King, E. M. Transactional and transformational Leadership: A comparative study of the difference between Tony Fernandez (Airasia) and Idris Jala (Malaysia Airlines) leadership styles from 2005-2009. International Journal of Business and Management, Vol. 8, No. 24. ISSN 1833-3850. pp. 107-116.
  36. Khzam, M. A. (2015). Leadership and change management. Retrieved March, 3rd 2020 from www.academia.edu › Leadership_And_Change_Manage.
  37. Kotter, J. P. (1990). A Force for change: How leadership differs from management. New York, NY: Free Press.
  38. Kotter, J. P. (2001). What leaders really do? Boston, MA: Harvard Business Review.
  39. Kuppusamy, S. K. (n. d). Leadership and the management of change: Air Asia Berhad. Online. Retrieved June 1st, 2020 from www.academis.edu.
  40. Liphadzi, M., Aigbavboa, C. O., & Thwala, W. D. (2017). A theoretical perspective on the
  41. difference between leadership and management. Procedia Engineering. 196. pp 478-
  42. 482. Doi: 10.1016/j.proeng.2017.07.227
  43. Manning, G, & Curtis, K. (2019). The Art of Leadership. 6th edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
  44. Marques, J. (2015). The changed leadership landscape: what matters today? Journal of Management Development, 34 (10), 1310-1322.
  45. Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research (4th Ed). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
  46. Mullins, I. J. (2010). Management and organizational behaviour, 9th edition, Edinburg: Pearson Education Limited.
  47. Mursal, H. M. A., Idaja, M. M. O., & Dahie, A. M. (2016). The Impact of globalization on higher education: Empirical survey from universities in Mogadishu-Somalia. International Journal, 4(9).
  48. Nguyen, N. and Hansen, J.Ø. (2016), “Becoming a leader-manager: a matter of training and education”, Development and Learning in Organizations, Vol. 30 No. 6, pp. 10-12. https://doi.org/10.1108/DLO-07-2016-0056
  49. Northouse, P. G., (Ed.). (2015). Leadership: Theory and practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications.
  50. O’Connell, P. K. (2014). A simplified framework for 21 st-century leader development. The Leadership Quarterly. 25(2), 183-203, doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.06.001
  51. Parris, D. L., & Peachey, J. W. (2013). A systematic literature review of servant leadership theory in organizational contexts. Journal of business ethics, 113 (3), 377-393.
  52. Pawar, A., (2016). Transformational leadership: inspirational, intellectual and motivational stimulation in business. International Journal of Enhanced Research in Management & Computer Applications. ISSN: 2319-7471, Vol. 5, 2016.
  53. Petrie, N. (2014). Future trends in leadership development. Retrieved November18th, 2015 from www.ccl.org/leadership/pdf/research/futuretrends.pdf
  54. Pisapia, J. (2009). The strategic leader: New tactics for a globalizing world. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.
  55. Pretorius, S., Steyn, H., & Bond-Barnard, T. J., (2018). Leadership Styles in Projects: Current Trends And Future Opportunities. South African Journal of Industrial Engineering November 2018 Vol 29(3) Special Edition, pp 161-172.
  56. Ramsay, J. R., Rutti, R. M., Lorentz, M. P., Barakat, L. L., & Sant’anna, A.S. (2017). Developing global transformational leaders. Journal of World Business. 52, pp. 461-473. http://dx.doi.org./10.1016/j.jwb.2016.06.002
  57. Rana, F. (2014, December). Jack Ma, The Capitalist. TIME, Retrieved June 1st, 2020 from time.com › time-person-of-the-year-runner-up-jack-ma
  58. Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. (2012). Essentials of organizational behaviour. Saddle Rivers: N.J. Pearson Higher Ed.
  59. Robbins, S.P., Coulter, M., & De Cenzo (2017) Management. 9th Edition, Prentice-Hall, London, UK.
  60. Sen, A. & Eren, E. (2012). Innovative leadership for the twenty-first century. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences. 41. pp. 1-14.
  61. Silva, A. (2014). What can we learn from great business leaders? Journal of Leadership Studies, Vol. 8. No, 3, pp. 52-57.
  62. Sirisetti, S. (2011). Quality leadership in the public sector: Strategies and challenges. The Journal of Commerce, 3(4), 45.
  63. Smet, A.D., Lurie, M., St George, A.m, (2018). Leading agile transformation: The new capabilities leaders need to build 21st-century organizations. McKinsey & Company.
  64. Sobocka-Szczapa, H. (2019). Competence of a leader - a manager in an organization. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, Vol. 318. 3rd International Conference on Social, Economic, and Academic Leadership (ICSEAL 2019), Atlantic Press.
  65. Sosik, J. J., Jung, D.I, Berson, Y, Dionne, S, & Jaussi, K. S. (2005). The strategic leadership of top executives in high-tech organizations. Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 47-61.
  66. Spears, L. C., & Lawrence, M. (Eds.). (2002). Focus on Leadership: Servant Leadership for the twenty-first century. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
  67. Spicker, P. (2012). Leadership: a perniciously vague concept. International Journal of Public Sector Management, Vol. 25, No.1: pp. 34-47.
  68. Tham, J. E., & Yazdanifard, R. (2015. The review of Alibaba’s operation management details that have navigated them to success. Global Journals of Management and Business Research (A) Vol, XV, Issue IV Version 1.
  69. Toma, S. G. (2013. Steve Jobs and modern leadership. Change and Leadership. No, 17. pp. 260-269.
  70. Toor, S-Ur-R., & Ofori, G. (2008). Leadership versus management: How they are different, and why. Leadership and Management in Engineering, April, 28, https://www.ResearchGate. net/publication/ 245492919.
  71. Toor, S-Ur-R. (2011). Differentiating leadership from management: An empirical investigation of leaders and managers. Leadership and Management in Engineering, 11(4): 330-320.
  72. Tran, K.S. (2021). Leadership Capability: “What We Do as a Leader” International Journal of Innovation, Management and Technology, Vol. 12, No. 1, February 2021. doi:10.18178/ijimt.2021.12.1.900
  73. Van Wart, M. (2013). Lessons from leadership theory and the contemporary challenges of leaders. Public Administration Review, 73 (4), 553-565.
  74. Zaleznik, A. (1977). Managers and leaders. Harvard Business Review, 55, 67-78.
  75. Zentner, A. (2016). Bill Gates: A Servant Leader. Retrieved May 11th, 2020 from SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2761090
  76. Zeti: New generation of leadership needed. (2014, October 2nd). The Star, Starbiz pp. 4.